Reframing Teaching Effectiveness in MetaverseEnhanced TVET: The Mediating Role of Teacher Engagement Within an i-TPACK Framework
Keywords:
i-TPACK; TVET; metaverse; pedagogical training; teacher readiness; teacher engagementAbstract
The rapid growth of metaverse technologies is transforming teaching practices in technical and vocational education and training
(TVET), and posing new challenges for teachers’ pedagogical and technological skills. Although institutional investments have been rising, limited research exists on how teacher development is translated into teaching effectiveness using both psychological and behavioral processes. This study analyses the mediating effect of teacher engagement in professional development, pedagogical training, metaverse tools engagement, teacher readiness, and teaching effectiveness through the metaverse. The data were gathered through judgmental sampling of 214 Malaysian TVET teachers with relevant experience in metaverse teaching. The analysis was conducted using two-step covariance-based structural equation modelling. The findings indicate that professional
development, pedagogical training, and engagement with metaverse tools significantly predict teaching effectiveness, with their effects partially mediated by teacher engagement. Teacher engagement emerged as the strongest determinant, functioning both directly and indirectly, in enhancing teaching effectiveness through the metaverse. The study advances the immersive technological pedagogical content knowledge (iTPACK) framework by positioning teachers’ engagement as a central mechanism that activates teacher development in metaverse TVET environments.
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.25.3.50
References
Alifah, M J., & Nor Hafizah, A. (2025). AlgorithmAce: Development and evaluation of a spatial unity metaverse platform to foster computational thinking in secondary education. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(10), 747–768. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.10.36
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
Andoh, R. P. K., Mensah, D. Y., & Owusu, E. A. (2022). Trainers’ pedagogical competencies and trainees’ assimilation of training content. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 34(2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1108/jwl-02-2021-0024
Bandura, A., & Wessels, S. (1997). Self-efficacy (Vol. 10). Cambridge University Press. https://educational-innovation.sydney.edu.au/news/pdfs/Bandura%201977.pdf
Beck, D., Morgado, L., & Shea, P. (2023). Educational practices and strategies with Metaverse learning environments: Mapping of reviews for using the metaverse. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17, 319–341. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368434277_Educational_Practices_and_Strategies_with_Immersive_Learning_Environments_Mapping_of_Reviews_for_using_the_Metaverse
Bower, M., DeWitt, D., & Lai, J. W. M. (2020). Reasons associated with preservice teachers’ intention to use immersive virtual reality in education: Reasons associated with preservice teachers’ intention. British Journal of Educational Technology: Journal of the Council for Educational Technology, 51(6), 2215–2233. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13009
Bowman, M. A., Vongkulluksn, V. W., Jiang, Z., & Xie, K. (2022). Teachers’ exposure to professional development and the quality of their instructional technology use: The mediating role of teachers’ value and ability beliefs. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 54(2), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2020.1830895
Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 947–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0742-051x(02)00053-7
Dai, C.-P., Ke, F., Dai, Z., & Pachman, M. (2023). Improving teaching practices via virtual reality?supported simulation?based learning: Scenario design and the duration of implementation. British Journal of Educational Technology: Journal of the Council for Educational Technology, 54(4), 836–856. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13296
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Study/86084
Garg, N., Kaur, A., Ahmad, F., & Dutta, R. (2025). Augmenting education: The transformative power of AR, AI, and emerging technologies. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2025(1). https://doi.org/10.1155/hbe2/5681184
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hutchins, N. M., & Biswas, G. (2024). Co?designing teacher support technology for problem?based learning in middle school science. British Journal of Educational Technology: Journal of the Council for Educational Technology, 55(3), 802–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13363
Kye, B., Han, N., Kim, E., Park, Y., & Jo, S. (2021). Educational applications of metaverse: possibilities and limitations. Journal of educational evaluation for health professions, 18. https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2021.18.32
Lanxin L., & Norizan, B. R., (2025). The influence of personality and teacher support on engagement and academic achievement in vocational education in China: A Five-factor model and self-determination theory approach. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(12), 165–191. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.12.8
Latepi, N. N. H., & Madar, A. R. (2025). Teacher readiness for digital competence in TVET education at vocational colleges. Research and Innovation in Technical and Vocational Education and Training, 5(1), 87-96. https://publisher.uthm.edu.my/periodicals/index.php/ritvet/issue/view/140
Lund, B. (2023). The questionnaire method in systems research: an overview of sample sizes, response rates and statistical approaches utilized in studies. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems, 53(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1108/vjikms-08-2020-0156
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x
Mystakidis, S., Fragkaki, M., & Filippousis, G. (2021). Ready teacher one: Virtual and Augmented reality online professional development for K-12 schoolteachers. Computers, 10(10), 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers10100134
Nicolosi, F., de Laurentis, C., Giussani, C., Marcus, H. J., Spena, G., & Ammar, A. (2024). Mixed reality and metaverse. In A. Ammar & M. Bernstein (Eds.), Ethical challenges for the future of neurosurgery (pp. 141–159). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50669-0_13
Onu, P., Pradhan, A., & Mbohwa, C. (2024). Potential to use metaverse for future teaching and learning. Education and Information Technologies, 29(7), 8893–8924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12167-9
Pandey, P. K., Pandey, P. K., Mahajan, S., Behera, J., & Tausif, M. R. (2024). Mitigating negative externalities in the metaverse: Challenges and strategies. In S. K. Baral, R. Goel, T. Singh, & R. Kumar (Eds.), Green metaverse for greener economies (pp. 247–269). CRC Press.
Preminger, L., Hayes, K. N., Bae, C. L., & O’Connor, D. (2024). Why do teachers vary in their instructional change during science PD? The role of noticing students in an iterative change process. Science Education, 108(3), 701–733. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21853
Ramírez, A., Burgos-Benavides, L., Sinchi, H., Quito-Calle, J. V., Díez, F. H., & Rodríguez-Díaz, F. J. (2025). Adaptation and validation of psychological assessment questionnaires using confirmatory factor analysis: A tutorial for planning and reporting analysis. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202502.1192.v1
Rawat, D. B., & Hagos, D. H. (2024). Metaverse survey & tutorial: Exploring key requirements, technologies, standards, applications, challenges, and perspectives. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2405.04718
Rui-qi, S., & Man, J. (2026). Career adaptability of higher vocational college students under home-school collaboration in China. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 25(2), 150–172. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.25.2.8
Sato, M., & Loewen, S. (2022). The research–practice dialogue in second language learning and teaching: Past, present, and future. The Modern Language Journal, 106(3), 509–527. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1350789
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two-sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
Shimu, S. S., & Haolader, F. A. (2025). TVET is under-resourced and held in low regard? Teachers’ perceptions of TVET in Bangladesh. Education + Training, 67(3), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-12-2023-0551
Sims, S., & Fletcher-Wood, H. (2021). Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: A critical review. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 32(1), 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2020.1772841
Sunday, A. O., Agbo, F. J., & Suhonen, J. (2025). Co-design pedagogy for computational thinking education in K-12: A systematic literature review. Technology, knowledge and learning, 30(1), 63–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-024-09765-y
Tene, T., Marcatoma Tixi, J. A., Palacios Robalino, M. D. L., Mendoza Salazar, M. J., Vacacela Gomez, C., & Bellucci, S. (2024). Integrating immersive technologies with STEM education: A systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1410163. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1410163
Uribe, V., Figueroa, P., & Gomez, V. (2024). The influence of metaverse environment design on the quality of experience in virtual reality classes: A comparative study. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1451859. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1451859
Wang, Y., & Li, X. (2024). Teacher readiness and professional training in digital learning: Evidence from higher education. Computers & Education, 205, 104921. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357388556_Teacher_Readiness_For_Digital_Transformation_Of_The_Educational_Process
Yuanling H., Hazrati H., Aidah, A. K., & Mengyao W. (2026). A bibliometric analysis of metaverse-integrated learning in language acquisition. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 25(1), 251-277. https://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/15409
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Darren Peter, Azeyan Awee, Peter Tan Sin Howe, Peter Yacob
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All articles published by IJLTER are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivatives 4.0 International License (CCBY-NC-ND4.0).
